Egizio S. The niches in the burial chamber were equipped with magical bricks Turin Mus. Statues of Gods made of black-coated wood were placed in her tomb Turin Mus.
It is possible that Nefertari was a surviving descendant of the 18 th Dynasty royal family. The tomb robbers smashed the stone sarcophagus, pulled the coffins out and ripped the mummy into pieces. The remains were thrown on the ground; the funerary equipment was plundered and only the wooden, clay and stone objects were left behind. Some of the funerary jewellery was lost during the looting. Later water intrusions badly damaged the tomb leaving a layer of debris over the objects.
The basic anatomical observations and the mummification methods and materials are consistent with a high status burial from the 19 th Dynasty.
The tomb robbers smashed the stone sarcophagus, pulled the coffins out and ripped the mummies of Nefertari and her children into pieces. The likelihood of this hypothesis is considerably low. The radiocarbon dating, chemistry and archaeology rule out a later burial in the 3 rd Intermediate or Late Period entirely. The results from the radiocarbon dating offer the possibility that remains from a burial of the 17 th or 18 th Dynasty were washed in the tomb after it was open.
Archaeological material found does not support such a hypothesis e. Tomb QV 66 is on higher ground at the side of the Valley of the Queens, while the burials from the 17 th and 18 th Dynasty are on lower ground, mostly at the bottom of the valley. Mudslide and heavy rains would have washed remains out of the valley but unlikely upwards and towards the end of the valley.
The first hypothesis seems to be the most credible and realistic and is coherent with the findings of the excavators and with the inscriptions found on the funerary objects. Thus, the most likely scenario is that the mummified knees truly belong to Queen Nefertari.
Although this identification is highly likely, no absolute certainty exists. A list of default criteria was made to test the likelihood of the first hypothesis Table 1. Certain default criteria were not found, which would exclude the identification of the knees as those of Queen Nefertari default criteria by chemistry or aDNA with reservation. The fitting criteria are in the majority Table 1. Egizio and Boston, Mus.
The authors of this manuscript also wish to express their gratitude to Dr. Resources: FJR. Browse Subject Areas? Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. Download: PPT. Fig 1.
Fig 2. Aim The aim of the research is to answer—via a multidisciplinary approach to a long historical debate—a complex question. The mummified remains as shown in the exhibition in Museo Egizio Turin Suppl. Material The human remains Suppl. Methods Ethics statement Ethic clearance was not needed, since the studied remains are older than years and no living relatives are known. Comparison of knees with ancient and modern samples Proportionality rule was applied to compare the ancient samples with the knees from QV Ancillary Egyptological analysis: the Sandals and Other Objects Found in Tomb QV 66 Sandals also exhibited in the Turin museum were found among other objects, such as the fragments of a stone sarcophagus of Nefertari bearing an inscription, 34 wooden shabtis bearing her name, two lids of coffers, fabric, broken pottery and fragments of wooden statues in Turin.
Chemical analysis The amorphous organic residues impregnating the textile samples taken from the knee assemblage were chemically characterized and identified using gas chromatography GC-MS. Radiocarbon dating Original sample of mummified tissue taken from the interior compartment of femura and tibiae contained mg of material. Results Radiological assessment The X-rays confirmed the presence of a pair of human knees, with distal part of femur, proximal part of tibia and fibular bone as well as the patella Figs 7 — Fig 7.
X-ray; arranged as seen in Fig 3. Fig 8. Left: X-ray left knee; the arrow marks the minimal signs of arthritis. Fig Fragments of left tibia and fibula; the arrow points to the calcification of the arteriae tibiales. Anthropometric reconstruction Both knee condyles show a ca. Chemical analysis data on embalming agents The results of the chemistry of the embalming agents suggest a date earlier than the 3 rd Intermediate Period, which is consistent with the evidence for the mummification materials and methods detailed below: the absence of bitumen is consistent with a New Kingdom date since it does not appear in balms from mummies until BC [ 35 , 36 ].
DNA analysis Mitochondrial sequences were only obtained from Primer Set 3, and only from the left fibula bone and the upper right bone and soft tissue samples. Radiocarbon dating The radiocarbon ages obtained on the 2 targets are in a very close agreement ETH Discussion of the Different Hypotheses The objects and human remains found in tomb QV 66 provide us with information which allows a contextualization of the findings and to access to their likelihood.
Hypothesis 1: The mummified legs belong to Queen Nefertari Reconstruction is based on ancient Egyptian funerary customs and recorded evidence found in QV Hypothesis 3: A secondary burial The radiocarbon dating, chemistry and archaeology rule out a later burial in the 3 rd Intermediate or Late Period entirely. Hypothesis 4: The remains are washed in from an earlier burial The results from the radiocarbon dating offer the possibility that remains from a burial of the 17 th or 18 th Dynasty were washed in the tomb after it was open.
Conclusion The first hypothesis seems to be the most credible and realistic and is coherent with the findings of the excavators and with the inscriptions found on the funerary objects. Supporting Information. S1 File. Habicht et al. References 1. Schiaparelli E. Inventario manoscritto. Vassilika E. Masterpieces of the Museo Egizio in Turin. Firenze: Scala Group; Grilletto R.
Torino; Dodson A, Hilton D. The accumulated evidence could point to an individual between 40 and 60 years old. Both knee condyles show a ca. A condyle width of ca 83—84 mm indicates that QV 66 knees were slightly slimmer than those of the younger and poorest women from Sub-Saharan Africa. There is no formula to re-calculate knee width from living to dead, only an estimate the greatest difference would be ca.
Moreover, it was also possible to determine—acknowledging a certain degree of uncertainty—that the bones found in QV66 belonged to an individual whose stature ranged between cm and cm Table A in S1 File. With a single exception, the knees from QV 66 belong to an individual taller than e. Compared with data about women from the New Kingdom average cm and 3 rd Intermediate Period average cm , she was taller than the average Egyptian woman [ 29 ].
The estimated height of ca. Compared to e. The poor quality of the shabtis was also a matter of speculation as they seemed ill-fitting for a burial of a great Queen [ 8 ]. A fragment of a golden object with the name of Nefertari was discovered in when the tomb was restored [ 8 ]. Other fragments of jewellery without a provenance but bearing the name of the queen are also known.
The style is typical of the 18 th — 19 th Dynasties [ 32 , 33 ]. The sandals from QV 66 show some wear caused by the movement of the foot on the dorsal upper side, the ventral side could not be studied due to mounting on a display panel neither by Veldmeijer, nor by the authors of the present study. The sandals measure 29 cm in length and 10 cm in width Fig Type C has a pointed, slightly upturned toe pointing to a modern shoe size of 39—40, if one only counts the length used by the foot, indicated by the imprints and the subtraction of the pointed end [ 34 ].
Veldmeijer described the sandals as those of Queen Nefertari [ 30 ]. The fine quality manufacture and high quality of the sandals speaks in favour of royal footwear.
Thus it is widely accepted, that all objects found in QV 66 seem to be part of the original burial of Queen Nefertari, broken by ancient tomb robbers [ 7 ]. The results of the chemistry of the embalming agents suggest a date earlier than the 3 rd Intermediate Period, which is consistent with the evidence for the mummification materials and methods detailed below: the absence of bitumen is consistent with a New Kingdom date since it does not appear in balms from mummies until BC [ 35 , 36 ].
The biomarkers for both these natural products are highly resilient and so can be expected to survive in a burial environment such as QV66 if they were originally present Fig The same non-human animal fat, most likely a ruminant fat, constituting the embalming agent in the outer wrappings from all three parts of the knee assemblage, combined with the absence of evidence for a natron bath being employed and other aspects of the mummification, suggest a 19 th or 20 th Dynasty date for the mummification.
Massive sub-cutaneous stuffing, the characteristic of the 3 rd Intermediate Period, is not visible. Mitochondrial sequences were only obtained from Primer Set 3, and only from the left fibula bone and the upper right bone and soft tissue samples. All samples showed multiple mtDNA sequences, with the soft and bone tissue from the upper right sampling area showing different sequences from each other.
This indicated that there are at least two contamination events in these samples. The sexing assay showed a weak amplification of the X-chromosomal target in the left fibula bone sample twice and the left femur soft tissue sample once , and one strong signal in the upper right soft tissue sample. The clear evidence of allelic drop-out, together with the evidence of contamination from the mtDNA data, means that no conclusions can be drawn on these data.
The inappropriate genetic behaviour exhibited in these samples for example, strong amplification of nuclear DNA with no mtDNA amplification as seen in the upper right soft tissue sample is further evidence that these samples are not suitable for further DNA analysis.
The radiocarbon ages obtained on the 2 targets are in a very close agreement ETH The calibration of this combined radiocarbon age results in a wide range of calendar ages. In some cases due to the shape of the calibration curve in the region of interest, the age of the sample falls into a period, where more precise information about the true age cannot be given [ 20 ].
OxCal v4. IntCal13 atmospheric curve [ 26 ]. The objects and human remains found in tomb QV 66 provide us with information which allows a contextualization of the findings and to access to their likelihood. In addition, fish diet could have possible effect on the 14 C age of the tissue as discussed in the study of mummified Ibis [ 43 ]. Such discrepancies between 14 C dates and assumed chronological models are observable for several time periods [ 44 ].
The results appear slightly older than the assumed lifespan of Queen Nefertari early 19 th Dynasty. The potential contamination sources could be older embalming agents used for mummification as well as intruding sediment during the recorded several mudslides in antiquity [ 8 ]. Such potential contamination would make the sample appear older.
Although the old stored conservation agents cannot be excluded the treatment of samples removed potential contamination with carbonates and humic acids, which could originate from sediments. Furthermore, the geography of the valley and the location of tomb QV 66 make it unrealistic that older remains were washed in uphill.
Rather a later dating of the remains in QV 66 would be problematic for identification as Nefertari. Reconstruction is based on ancient Egyptian funerary customs and recorded evidence found in QV Her mummy was decorated with funerary jewellery bearing her name as the deified Osiris Boston, Museum of Fine Arts Inv.
Her mummy was placed in gilded wooden coffins splinters were found in QV The coffins were placed in a stone sarcophagus Turin, Mus. Egizio S. The niches in the burial chamber were equipped with magical bricks Turin Mus. Statues of Gods made of black-coated wood were placed in her tomb Turin Mus.
It is possible that Nefertari was a surviving descendant of the 18 th Dynasty royal family. The tomb robbers smashed the stone sarcophagus, pulled the coffins out and ripped the mummy into pieces.
The remains were thrown on the ground; the funerary equipment was plundered and only the wooden, clay and stone objects were left behind. Some of the funerary jewellery was lost during the looting. Later water intrusions badly damaged the tomb leaving a layer of debris over the objects. The basic anatomical observations and the mummification methods and materials are consistent with a high status burial from the 19 th Dynasty.
The tomb robbers smashed the stone sarcophagus, pulled the coffins out and ripped the mummies of Nefertari and her children into pieces. The likelihood of this hypothesis is considerably low. The radiocarbon dating, chemistry and archaeology rule out a later burial in the 3 rd Intermediate or Late Period entirely. The results from the radiocarbon dating offer the possibility that remains from a burial of the 17 th or 18 th Dynasty were washed in the tomb after it was open.
Archaeological material found does not support such a hypothesis e. Tomb QV 66 is on higher ground at the side of the Valley of the Queens, while the burials from the 17 th and 18 th Dynasty are on lower ground, mostly at the bottom of the valley.
Mudslide and heavy rains would have washed remains out of the valley but unlikely upwards and towards the end of the valley. The first hypothesis seems to be the most credible and realistic and is coherent with the findings of the excavators and with the inscriptions found on the funerary objects.
Thus, the most likely scenario is that the mummified knees truly belong to Queen Nefertari. Although this identification is highly likely, no absolute certainty exists. A list of default criteria was made to test the likelihood of the first hypothesis Table 1. Certain default criteria were not found, which would exclude the identification of the knees as those of Queen Nefertari default criteria by chemistry or aDNA with reservation.
The fitting criteria are in the majority Table 1. From 16 criteria are 14 classified as fitting and 2 as inconclusive. A certain default was not found. The authors of this manuscript also wish to express their gratitude to Dr. Nefertari's presence in these two temples is rather unprecedented. In the great temple Nefertari is shown on the facade of the temple with other royal family members. Inside the temple we see Nefertari accompanying her husband in smiting scenes.
This is quite unusual for a Queen. The smaller temple of Hathor is also dedicated to Queen Nefertari. She is depicted on the facade at equal size to her husband. Her two Colossal statues are flanked by her daughters Merytamen and Henuttawy.
Inside the temple we see Neferatri being crowned by Hathor and Isis. Nefertari may have held her exalted position due to the fact that she gace birth to the heir to the throne, prince Amenhirkhepeshef.
She is beyond a doubt the highest ranking royal lady in Egypt during the first 20 years of the reign of Ramesses II. She is known to have corresponded with Queen Puduheba of the Hittites as a letter by Nefertari was found in the royal archives in Bogazkoy in Hatti.
Her health may have deteriorated by ca year A stela by the viceroy Heqanakht shows Ramesses accompanied by his daughter-wife Merytamen making offerings at the temple at Abu Simbel.
In a lower register the viceroy is shown adoring Queen Nefertari. Soon after Nefertari disappears from the scene altogether. The decorations in her tomb are considered some of the most beautiful of the entire necropolis. The tomb was robbed in antiquity, but some items shabtis etc were found by Schiaparelli. The tomb was the focus of major restoration work done by the Getty foundation. Much damage had been done to the once beautiful decorations by seeping water and salt. The tomb is now closed to the public.
Rich in love, wearing the circlet-diadem, singer fair of face, beautiful with the tall twin plumes, Chief of the Harim of Horus, Lord of the Palace; one is pleased with what ever comes forth concerning her; who was only to say anything, and it is done for her - every good thing at her wish? I play the sistra be for e your fair face, I please you because of your goodness - may you safeguard your beloved son, with whom you are pleased, the Lord of Both Lands, Usermaatre Setepenre , given life like Re forever.
Queen, her speech: Words spoken by the Great King's Wife, his beloved, Nefertari Meryetmut , to her father Min-Amun, chief over his sanctuary: "Your beloved son, the Lord of Both Lands, Usermaatre Setepenre , has come to see you in your beautiful manifestation. He has erected for you the mast of the pavilion -framework. May you grant him eternity as King, and victory over those rebellious against His Majesty, L.
Nefertari two different views. Throne: Usermaatre Setepenre, Sun of Rulers. East Colonnade, Southern Statue. South Colonnade, Western Statue. South Colonnade, Eastern Statue. West Colonnade, Northern Statue. Statue group of Queen and Prince from the Karnak Cachette. Front, Prince: Bodily king's Son, [ Rear Surface: [ The hereditary Prince and Count, a magnate great in the King's House, greatest of the grandees in [ Queen Nefertari depicted offering sistrums to goddess Hathor — Photo Courtesy of Wikipedia Reading and Writing Hieroglyphs, knowing the basics of sending letters and messages, managing successful diplomatic negotiations, Nefertari played a vital role in her husband King Ramses II diplomatic policy.
King Ramses II showed great love and appreciation towards Queen Nefertari through a number of paintings, statues, and temples that he constructed for her, in addition to her amusing tomb. It was the first time a temple was constructed for a queen in the history of Ancient Egypt, according to Hawas.
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